Introduction to the Cornerstone

The stone the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone. By the LORD this has been done and it is woderful in our eyes.

- Psalm 118:22-23

Introduction to the Cornerstone

The following Biblical passages ahould help readers gain a better overall understanding of the term 'Cornerstone' and its relationship to both the Bible and Judeo-Christian symbolism. Included below is a concise list of Scriptural verses which mention the Cornerstone by name. They are as follows:

You also, like living stones, are being built into a spiritual house to be a holy priesthood, offering spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. For in Scripture it says: 'See, I lay a stone in Zion, a chosen and precious Cornerstone, and the one who trusts in him will never be put to shame.' Now to you who believe, this stone is precious. But to those who do not believe, 'The stone the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone.

-1 Peter 2:5-7

Consequently, you are no longer foreigners and strangers, but fellow citizens with God’s people and also members of His household, built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus Himself as the chief Cornerstone. In Him the whole building is joined together and rises to become a holy temple in the Lord.

- Ephesians 2:19-21

Then know this, you and all the people of Israel: It is by the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, whom you crucified but whom God raised from the dead, that this man stands before you healed. Jesus is ‘the stone you builders rejected which has become the Cornerstone.

- Acts 4:10-12

Jesus looked directly at them and asked, “Then what is the meaning of that which is written: 'The stone the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone?' Everyone who falls on that stone will be broken to pieces; anyone on whom it falls will be crushed."

- Luke 20:17-18

Haven’t you read this passage of Scripture: 'The stone the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone. The Lord has done this, and it is marvelous in our eyes’?”

- Mark 12:10-11

Jesus said to them, “Have you never read in the Scriptures: ‘The stone the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone. The Lord has done this and it is marvelous in our eyes’? Therefore I tell you that the kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a people who will produce its fruit."

- Matthew 21:42-43

'I am against you, you destroying mountain, you who destroy the whole earth,' declares the LORD. 'I will stretch out my hand against you, roll you off the cliffs, and make you a burned-out mountain. No rock will be taken from you for a Cornerstone, nor any stone for a foundation, for you will be desolate forever,' declares the LORD.

- Jeremiah 51:25-27

This is what the Sovereign LORD says: “See, I lay a stone in Zion, a tested stone, a precious Cornerstone for a sure foundation; the one who relies on it will never be stricken with panic.'

- Isaiah 28:16

From Judah will come the Cornerstone, from him the tent peg, from him the battle bow, from him every ruler.

- Zechariah 10:4

The princes of Zoan have acted foolishly. The princes of Memphis are deluded. Those who are the Cornerstone of her tribes have led Egypt astray.

- Isaiah 19:13

I will give you thanks, for you answered me, you have become my salvation. The stone the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone, the LORD has done this, and it is marvelous in our eyes.

- Psalm 118:21-23

Who marked off its dimensions? Surely you know! Who stretched a measuring line across it? On what were its footings set, or who laid its Cornerstone while the morning stars sang together and all the angels shouted for joy?

- Job 38:5-7

May the LORD God bless you in the name of the Judeo-Christian tradition.

The Cornerstone, Part IV. Theological Interpretations of the Cornerstone

The Stone which the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone.
By the LORD this has been done and it is wonderful in our eyes.

- Psalms 118:22-23

Part IV. Theological Interpretations of the Cornerstone

The understanding of Judeo-Christian theologians when it comes to the meaning of the Biblical word 'cornerstone' has remained fairly consistent for nearly the past two thousand years. In short, not only is Rabbi Joshua ben Joseph (Jesus), the Nazarene, seen as being above it all, He is also considered to be the very foundation upon which the religion of Christianity is based. In other words, Joshua the Messiah (Christ) is both far below (the Eye Below the Pyramid) as well as way above (the Eye Above the Pyramid) mere mortals such as man. Indeed, He stands guard eternally protecting His Judeo-Christian flock from the very top of the mountain to the absolute bottom of the valley. Rabbi Joshua is, quite literally, the ruler the all. Here are two basic Biblical commentaries pertaining to the cornerstone.

Cornerstone
Psalms 118:22-23 may refer to David's preferment; but principally to Christ. 1. His humiliation; he is the Stone which the builders refused: they would go on in their building without him. This proved the ruin of those who thus made light of him. Rejecters of Christ are rejected of God. 2. His exaltation; he is the chief Cornerstone in the foundation. He is the chief Top-stone, in whom the building is completed, who must, in all things, have the pre-eminence. Christ's name is Wonderful; and the redemption he wrought out is the most amazing of all God's wondrous works

- Matthew Henry's Commentary

Cornerstone
Architectural term used twice in the New Testament ( Eph 2:20 ; 1 Peter 2:6 ) to speak of the exalted Jesus as the chief foundation stone of the church, the cornerstone on which all the building depends. The New Testament draws on two Old Testament passages about the coming Messiah ( Isa 28:16 ; Zech 10:4 ). In Isaiah 28:16 the prophet speaks God's words directly to the rulers in Jerusalem who boasted that they were immune to the scourges of life because they were secure in themselves. God said their security was false because he would lay a stone in Zion, a precious cornerstone, which really was secure and it was not those present rulers. Zechariah expands this promise by saying that the cornerstone will come from the tribe of Judah (10:4). Paul builds on this concept in Ephesians 2:20 by saying that Jesus Christ is the chief cornerstone, the apostles and prophets are foundation stones, and the whole building (the church) is a holy temple in the Lord. Peter's use of the idea is more complex, stringing three prophetic verses together ( Psalm 118:22 ; Isa 8:4 ; 28:16 ). The stone laid in Zion ( Isa 28:16 ) is precious to the believer, but as the stone placed at the "head of the corner" (eis kephalen gonias), that is, exalted ( Psalm 118:22 ), he is a stone of offense and stumbling ( Isa 8:4 ) to those who refuse to believe. The metaphor seems obvious: the cornerstone is either a source of blessing or judgment, depending on a person's attitude toward it. Some modern interpreters, beginning with J. Jeremias in 1925, take a different tack, separating the two stones and making the cornerstone one thing and the stone at the "head of the corner" another, that is, a capstone or keystone. It is hard to visualize one stumbling over a capstone, but metaphors can be stretched. In any case, the point is that the very foundation of the church is Jesus Christ. This was prophesied by the prophets of old and fulfilled through the incarnation. Those who believe are blessed and those who stumble over that rock chosen by God are condemned.

- Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology

In addition to various Biblical commentaries, several Church authorities, including both St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, have commented quite extensively upon the Biblical and metaphorical use of the term 'cornerstone'. Here is just a sampling of some of their writings:

(Jesus Christ) Himself then is the foundation, and corner stone: rising from the bottom: if indeed from the bottom: for the base of this foundation is the highest exaltation of the building: and as the support of bodily fabrics rests upon the ground, that of spiritual structures reposes on high. Were we building up ourselves upon the earth, we should lay our foundation on the lowest level: but since our edifice is a heavenly one, to Heaven our Foundation has gone before us: so that our Saviour, the corner stone, the Apostles, and mighty Prophets, the hills that bear the fabric of the city, constitute a sort of living structure.

- Exposition on Psalm 87, by St. Augustine

O Prophet, who said, "You are fair in beauty above the children of men;" you are contradicted; another Prophet comes out against you, and says, " You speak falsely. We have seen Him. What is this that you say, 'You are fair in beauty above the children of men? We have seen Him, and He had no grace nor beauty.'" Are then these two Prophets at disagreement in the Cornerstone of peace? Both spoke of Christ, both spoke of the Cornerstone. In the corner the walls unite. If they do not unite, it is not a building, but a ruin. No, the Prophets agree, let us not leave them in strife. Yea, rather let us understand their peace; for they know not how to strive.

- Sermon 45 on the New Testament, St. Augustine

To the one who has faith, Jesus Christ is the chosen, precious 'foundation stone', but to the one who does not have faith, He is a stone of stumbling.

- Dictionary of Biblical Imagery

For Christ alone is the "Corner Stone" (Ephesians 2:20) on which man and society can find stability and salvation.

- Bible Commentary

On this Corner Stone the Church is built, and hence against her the adversary can never prevail: "The gates of hell shall not prevail" (Saint Matthew 16:18), nor can they ever weaken her! Nay, rather, internal and external struggles tend to augment the force and multiply the laurels of her glorious victories...On the other hand, any other building which has not been founded solidly on the teaching of Christ rests on shifting sands and is destined to perish miserably.

- Summi Pontificatus, 1939

As (St.) Augustine says in a sermon on the Epiphany, "the shepherds were Israelites, the Magi were Gentiles. The former were nigh to Him, the latter far from Him. Both hastened to Him together as to the cornerstone." There was also another point of contrast: for the Magi were wise and powerful; the shepherds simple and lowly. He was also made known to the righteous as Simeon and Anna; and to sinners, as the Magi....Yet did this Corner-Stone draw both to Itself; inasmuch as He came 'to choose the foolish things that He might confound the wise,' and 'not to call the just, but sinners,'" so that "the proud might not boast, nor the weak despair.

- Summa Theologica, St. Thomas Aquinas, Question 36. The manifestation of the newly born Christ

Even family life itself, which is the cornerstone of all society and government, necessarily feels and experiences the salutary power of the Church, which redounds to the right ordering and preservation of every State and kingdom. For you know, venerable brethren, that the foundation of this society rests first of all in the indissoluble union of man and wife according to the necessity of natural law...You know also that the doctrines of socialism strive almost completely to dissolve this union; since, that stability which is imparted to it by religious wedlock being lost, it follows that the power of the father over his own children, and the duties of the children toward their parents, must be greatly weakened.

- Quod Apostolici Muneris, 1878

The stone... Another emblem of Christ, the rock, foundation, and corner stone of his Church.

- Challoner

May the LORD God bless you in the name of the Judeo-Christian tradition.

The Cornerstone, Part III. The Metaphorical Roots of 21st Century English Slang

The Stone which the builders rejected has become the Cornerstone.
By the LORD this has been done and it is wonderful in our eyes.

- Psalms 118:22-23

Part III. The Metaphorical Roots of 21st Century English Slang

There is plenty of modern slang that is derogatory and that specifically refers to the eye above the pyramid in an insulting, rebellious manner. Many would say that it stands for being uppity, like some snot with their nose in the air, who believes they are above it all, even above the law. It is not having a high IQ, it’s simply being an air-head. It certainly does not symbolize Lenin’s ‘commanding heights of the economy,’ On the contrary, it’s a bullshit pyramid scheme, a tall tale nearing bankruptcy. Instead of being a sign of financial stability, it is a clear indication that you are about to go belly-up! It is not being on top of the situation, but simply another way of deliberately overlooking major difficulties, hoping they will magically go away. In short, the eye above the pyramid stands for little more than dangerous arrogance and self-destructive pride.

At worst, the eye above the pyramid is a pie in the sky, head in the clouds, high-minded Ponzi scheme and it stinks like high heaven. At best, it is foolishly putting your ass out on a line for no one in particular and for no particular reason except, of course, to make yourself look like a hero in front of others. Some may be frightened or even intimidated by this so-called New World Order but, behind the facade, it is simply an infantile game of ‘look at my butt’ or ‘kiss my ass’ that only filthy-minded people like to play. As the ole’ Southern song recommends: ‘Look away, look away, look away, Dixieland.’

At the same time, one could claim that the eye below the pyramid does not always mean scraping the bottom of the barrel, being down and out, in the pits, or buried six feet under. Instead, it stands for grass roots, down to earth virtues, or even a bottom-up approach to deep-seated problems. In many ways, the eye below is an undervalued solution that, like buried treasure, lies just underneath the surface. It symbolizes the underlying universal truths, the root causes of goodness that touch us deep down, from the bottom of our hearts. We can’t all be top dog, so there’s nothing wrong with cheering for the underdog most of the time. The eye below the pyramid is almost certainly the reason why the nation of Australia is nicknamed the Land Down Under. Wise business owners and investors refer to it as ‘the bottom line.’ In many ways, the eye below the pyramid represents a real hero, who would never dare to commit high crimes and misdemeanors or stage a mutiny at high seas, but would gladly disobey unjust laws to fight the good fight for the down-trodden, much like the white Yankee northerners who helped to hide escaped slaves as a part of the Underground Railroad.

The eye above the pyramid has an expression that, when studied carefully, seems stuck-up as opposed to the righteous anger and jealousy found in the eye below the pyramid. ‘For I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God.’ (Exodus 20:5) A classic Rock song captures the upper crust, uptight, snobbishness this eye seems to express as it gazes out from the heights of wealth and power, a classic example of what Hannah Arendt referred to as the ‘banality of evil.’

I am the eye in the sky. Looking at you, I can read your mind. I am the maker of rules dealing with fools, I can cheat you blind.

- Eye in the Sky, by the Allan Parsons Project

In addition, there are several Biblical passages strongly suggesting that the eye above the pyramid is the real bad guy. It does not, in any way, represent Ronald Reagan’s ‘shining city upon a hill’ nor a ‘light unto the gentiles’ nor God’s ‘holy mountain’ as mentioned by Isaiah and several other prophets of Israel. Seen literally, it is nothing more than a man-made structure, a tomb for the dead tyrant Pharaoh, not Mount Sinai.

May the LORD God bless you in the name of the Judeo-Christian Tradition.

The Joshua Star, Part II. The Hexagram's Metaphorical Influence on the New Testament

I, Joshua (Jesus)...am the Root and Branch of David. I am the Bright, Morning Star.

- Revelation 22:16

Part II. The Hexagram's Metaphorical Influence on the New Testament

Read carefully, the Gospels show substantial evidence that those who actually wrote them clearly intended to make metaphorical use of the Star of David, an age-old sacred symbol of the Judeo-Christian tradition. While this could never really be proven directly, at least some of the words and phrases that Rabbi Joshua (Jesus) utilizes throughout the Gospels appear to be blatant references to the hexagram, as well as the two triangles that create it. Here are just some of those Biblical passages:

Defeating Satan

(Jesus) called them to Himself and began speaking to them in parables, 'How can Satan cast out Satan? If a kingdom is divided against itself, that kingdom cannot stand. If a house is divided against itself, that house will not be able to stand. If Satan has risen up against himself and is divided, he cannot stand, but he is finished!'

- Mark 3:23-26

Jesus said to them, 'Any kingdom divided against itself is laid waste, and any city or house divided against itself will not stand. If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand?

- Matthew 12:25-26

The Strong Man's House

How can anyone enter the strong man's house and carry off his property, unless he first binds the strong man? And then he will plunder his house.

- Matthew 12:29

No one can enter the strong man's house and plunder his property unless he first binds the strong man, and then he will plunder his house.

- Mark 3:27


Defeating Satan

Bible	Mark 3:23-24
	How can Satan cast out...
	...Satan? If a kingdom is divided...
	...against itself, that kingdom cannot stand.

Bible	Mark 3:25
	If a house is...
	...divided...
	...against itself, that house will not be able to stand.

Bible	Mark 3:26
	If Satan has risen up...
	...against himself and is...
	...divided, he cannot stand, but he is finished!

Bible	Matthew 12:25
	Any kingdom divided...
	...against itself is laid waste and any city or house divided...
	...against itself will not stand.

Bible	Matthew 12:26
	If Satan casts out...
	...Satan, he is divided...
	...against himself; how then will his kingdom stand?

The Strong Man's House

Bible	Mark 3:27
	No one can enter the strong man's house and...
	...plunder his property unless he first...
	...binds the strong man, and then he will plunder his house.

Bible	Matthew 12:29
	Or how can anyone enter the strong man's house and carry off...
	...his property, unless he first...
	...binds the strong man? And then he will plunder his house.

As the above passages strongly suggest, Rabbi Joshua understood that gaining control and authority over demons also required the ritual knowledge and use of the six-pointed hexagram. For literally 2,000 years, Jews and Christians alike have trusted in the Star of David as a supernaturally powerful 'hex' against Satan and the Devil. The religious power of this Judeo-Christian symbol has always meant to be a pox on both of their wicked, evil houses, as the old saying goes.

Clearly, the originally Jewish tradition of understanding the hexagram must have filtered over to the early Church and continued onward from there. Even St. Paul's letters show evidence of its metaphorical influence, especially when it comes to his precise choice of words. In general, both Judaism and Christianity has looked upon the hexagram not only as the royal family coat-of-arms for David and his descendants, but also as a representation of opposites which may sometimes complement each other. Even today, many religious Jews are taught from early childhood that the upright triangle (the Eye Above the Pyramid) symbolizes Heaven, while the inverted triangle (the Eye Below the Pyramid) stands for the Earth, as in the Book of Genesis which states:

In the beginning, when God created the Heavens and the Earth...

- Genesis 1:1

Thus, the Jewish child is consistently taught to see the Star of David as a seamless union of differing realities. This typically includes such natural phenomena as the mountains and the valleys, the lightning and the thunder, the ocean waves and the undertow, all of which comprise a small part of God's overall Creation.

(Jesus said) 'If I by Beelzebul cast out demons, by whom do your sons cast them out? For this reason they will be your judges. But if I cast out demons by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God has come upon you.'

- Matthew 12:27-28

With that in mind, it seems more than probable that Rabbi Joshua ben Joseph of Nazareth (Jesus Christ) was also taught similar ideas about the hexagram many centuries ago, especially since the Star of David also happened to be His own immediate family's (Joseph and Mary) ancient insignia. All things considered, it appears quite likely that the fairly obvious metaphorical references to this icon found throughout both the Old and New Testament is no mere coincidence. Instead, these symbolic allusions to the hexagram, and its two opposing triangles, may simply be little more than a literary practice of the Biblical Prophets which has been in use since the days of Moses. As history shows, this simple, yet very meaningful, symbol known as the Star of David has also managed to teach generations upon generations of children (and adults) about the eternal, abiding truth that can be found within the Judeo-Christian tradition.

May the LORD God bless you in the name of the Maccabees.

May the LORD God bless you in the name of St. David.

The Joshua Star, Part I. The Intelligentsia and the Star of David

I, Joshua (Jesus)...am the Root and Branch of David. I am the Bright, Morning Star.

- Revelation 22:16

Part I. The Intelligentsia and the Star of David

The use of these two symbols, the eye above and the eye below the pyramid, as a method of both analysis and explanation is most certainly related to what Marxists used to call dialectical materialism. It is high time that more and more individuals become familiarized with the eye below the pyramid and the fact that it too has a very long history and meaning to it. Along with the prophets, Roman Catholic historian Carroll Quigley almost certainly knew about the symbol. He makes it fairly obvious in the following passage:

In each country the supply of money took the form of an inverted pyramid or cone balanced on its point. In the point was a supply of gold and its equivalent certificates; on the intermediate level was a much larger supply of notes and at the top, with an open and expandable upper surface, was an even greater supply of deposits.

- Tragedy & Hope, by Caroll Quigley, p. 54

The Rabbis who wrote the Babylonian Talmud were also familiar with both symbols. Nothing else explains the repeated saying: ‘The native would be in the earth and the stranger in the highest heavens? Yes, the like has found his like and is aroused.’ (Mo’ed II, ‘Erubin 9a) Note that placing the two pyramids, or triangles, together creates a Star of David.


For centuries, numerous Christians have used this star as a hex to drive off demons and other evil spirits. Traditionally in Judaism the upright triangle stands for Heaven, the inverted triangle for the Earth, while putting both together symbolizes Heaven and Earth, a golden age of peace and prosperity for all. Using this same technique, it becomes easier to understand certain concepts and phrases from historically significant people. The following chart is a sampling of this eye for an eye type of analysis.

Field of Study
Theology (Moses)	Earth	Heaven	Creation
Philosophy (Hegel)	Thesis	Antithesis	Hypothesis
Psychology (Freud)	Id	Superego	Ego
Judaism (Rabbi Hillel)	If I am not for myself, who will be?	If I am not for others, what am I?	If not now, when?
Christianity (Rabbi Jesus)	How can Satan...	Cast out Satan? A kingdom...	Divided against itself cannot stand.
Mysticism (Meister Eckhart)	The eye by which I see God is the...	Same as the eye by which God sees me.	My eye and God’s eye are one and the same.
Rock Music (Rolling Stones)	There's Heads...	There's Tails, just call me...	Lucifer and I’m in need of some restraint.

Hopefully by now I have managed to convince you that the eye below the pyramid is quite real, meaningful, and most certainly not a coincidence. Taken as a whole, this age-old riddle of the Founding Fathers is far more than meets the eye. Keep in mind that both eyes are symbolic of the pagan principle: ‘As above, so below.’ In particular, the Bible itself makes far more sense once you’ve been made aware of the eye below the pyramid. Many Scriptural verses refer to one or both pyramids on numerous occasions. So, even though I cannot prove it as an empirical fact, the evidence indicates that the eye below the pyramid has been known for millennia and remains one of history’s better kept secrets. Go tell the world until isn’t a secret anymore.

At bottom, this symbol is neither the evil eye, nor the troll under the bridge, nor the monster under the bed. It is simply a part of both Judaism and Christianity. The Jewish Torah states: ‘The God of your father…blesses you, with the blessings of the heavens above, [and] the blessings of the abyss that crouches below.’ (Genesis 49:25) Just as the New Testament proclaims: ‘I Jesus…am the root and the branch of David. I am the bright, morning star.’ (Revelation 22:16) Even children can understand these adult concepts intuitively, as in the nursery rhyme: ‘Twinkle, twinkle little star. How I wonder where you are.’ Remember your dreams, now and forever.

An Eye for an Eye, Part I. As Above, So Below in the English Language

You are to take a life for a life, an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a hand for a hand, a foot for a foot, a burn for a burn, a wound for a wound, a bruise for a bruise.

- Exodus 21:23-25

Part I. As Above, So Below in the English Language

In many intricate ways, including the fact that the Eyes of the Pyramid form a substantial portion of the metaphorical symbolism found in the Holy Bible, the English language has been literally embedded with the multi-layered meaning of the Hexagram. From the top of the mountain, to the bottom of the valley, the eyes of the pyramid have been a partially hidden, yet increasingly obvious, influence on the development of English, both in Great Britain and throughout the world, including the Land Down Under.

Subject Matter
Adjective	High	Low
Currency	High Inflation	Low Inflation
Finance	High Interest Rates	Low Interest Rates
Social Status	High Class	Low Class
Preference	High Taste	Low Taste
Intelligence	High I.Q.	Low I.Q.
Merchandise	High-End	Low-End
Technology	High Teach	Low Tech
Stereo Sound	High Fidelity	Low Fidelity
Estimation	High-Balling	Low-Balling
Auction	High Bid	Low Bid
Maintenance	High Maintenance	Low Maintenance
Attendance	High Turnout	Low Turnout
Crime	High Crime Rate	Low Crime Rate
Baseball	High Ball	Low Ball
Maps	High Scale	Low Scale
Land	Highlands	Lowlands
Oceans	High Seas	Low Seas
Tide	High Tide	Low Tide
Magazine	High Times	Low Rider
Rock Song	Rock Mountain High	I've got Friends in Low Places

Subject Matter
Adjective	Over	Under
Expectation	Overwhelming	Underwhelming
Reaction	Over-Reacting	Under-Reacting
Medication	Over the Counter	Under the Counter
Measurement	Overestimate	Underestimate
Individual	Ms. Overhill	Mr. Underhill

Subject Matter
Adjective	Upper	Lower
Terrain	Upper Valley	Lower Valley
Social Class	Upper Class	Lower Class
School Grade	Upper School	Lower School

Subject Matter
Adjective	Top	Bottom
Science	Top Quark	Bottom Quark
Highlands	Top of the Mountain	Bottom of the Mountain
Lowlands	Top of the Valley	Bottom of the Valley
Clothing	Top Button	Bottom Button
Depth	Top of the Waves	Bottom of the Sea
Height	Top of the Sky	Bottom of the Earth

Subject Matter
Adjective	Above	Below
Depth	Above Ground	Below Ground
Middle	Above Average	Below Average
Poor	Above the Poverty Line	Below the Poverty Line
Quality	Above Standard	Below Standard
Boxing	Above the Chin	Below the Belt
Basketball	Above the Basket	Below the Rim
Boundary	Above the Line	Below the Line
Driving	Above the Speed Limit	Below the Speed Limit
Altitude	Above Sea Level	Below Sea Level
Alcohol	Above the Legal Limit	Below the Legal Limit

May the LORD God bless you in the name of the Judeo-Christian tradition.